The word information, in my opinion, is the most abused word in our language, next to love. Twice in his book, Claude Shannon, the father of information theory, made a distinction between information and data, very few people have paid attention to this distinction, most people treat data and information as synonyms.
    I can only vaguely remember one entry, he said in effect, "Obtaining information from data is like playing a game of twenty questions." If you are not familiar with the game, the first question is, 'Is it animal, vegetable, or mineral?', after the first question all other questions are answered yes of no.
    It seemed to me that information is a logical extension of a bit and data. If a bit, in our language, is a character and data is a word, then information is a sentence. Information is the output of the intelligence activity operating on sentence equivalent data; subject, verb, and object; the minimum dimensions of information.
    For example, 'John painted the house.' The characters are the bits, the words the data, and information can be created by the intelligence activity because the minimum dimensions of information are present. If any dimension of information is missing, it will be supplied by the user with the possibility of arriving at the wrong conclusion. Allow me to use a crude example from my school days that illustrates this difficulty very well.

                                    Oh, Johnny let's not park here.
                                    Oh, Johnny let's not park.
                                    Oh, Johnny let's not.
                                    Oh, Johnny let's.
                                    Oh, Johnny.
                                    Oh!

    In the last line all three minimum dimensions are missing. When analyzed in context with the preceding statements the intelligence activity can create information; however, the information created may not be what the sender intended.
    Please  analyze the data in the following table (an array) one line at a time so you eyes cannot skip ahead.
                                    Person                 A         B         C         D
                                    Kisses per day      0         4         40        20

What information do you have? Add another row.

                                    Person                 A         B         C          D
                                    Kisses per day      0         4         40         20
                                    Sex                      F         M         F         M

Did your information change? Add another row.
                                    Person                 A         B         C           D
                                    Kisses per day     0         4          40         20
                                    Sex                      F         M         F           M
                                    Years married      0         40       0.02         0

    Did your information change again?

    The value of old data does not change, but information changes as new data is acquired. Generally new data will add another dimension, direction, or perspective to the information already available.
    Information is vector, it has dimensions and a direction. It is subjective with respect to systems, that is, it cannot be transported by a system across its boundary. The direction is dependent upon the coordinate system of the system, and because of this dependence information is only available to the system that creates it.
    In order to transfer information to another system, data must be created from the information, the data transported to the other system, and information created from the data by the other system, a very error prone activity. It is imperative that only necessary data be transported without omitting essential data and the data be in a format that aids the quick and accurate creation of information without any loss of value (meaning). Remember the meaning is not transported with the data, only the bits are transported, bits that can easily be recognized as data. The receiving system must recall from storage the agreed meaning of each data element and then create information from the agreed values.
    Bits are scalar, they do not have a direction or dimensions. Bits are objective with respect to systems, that is, they can be transported by a system across its boundary. Bits are created by a change in a system, by a compare operand, or arbitrarily by a user. A bit is any sign, signal, symbol, etc., a singular attribute of a resource. When a system recognizes a bit, it recognizes that singularity and nothing else. Each bit is recognized in isolation from all other bits, even when many bits are received and recognized at the same time. A bit to one system may not be a bit to another.
    For our eyes, each photon is a bit, for our nose the smallest number of atoms necessary to cause a neuron to fire, etc. For writing, the smallest bit is one character of our alphabet, a number, one blank space, one punctuation mark, etc., but marks in sand, in clay, on paper, etc. or light, heat, sound, electricity, magnetism, etc., can be bits and bits can be created from geometric figures, art, music, etc.
    Data is one or more bits whose value is assigned by a system. Bits do not have a value until a system gives them one. Data is scalar, because bits are. Data is objective with respect to systems, that is, data can be transported by a system across its boundary because bits can. Data can be logical, numeric, alphabetic, etc. Written words and numbers are common data, but data can be created from any bit, any singularity. Remember, the vast majority of data is nonverbal.
    The value of data is the result of assignment. A user arbitrarily places a value (meaning) on a combination of bits of a resource to represent the attributes of something else. The value of the assignment can be as simple as yes or no, true or false, or present or absent; or as complicated as love, freedom, or democracy. People tend to think of the last three words as information, but they are only data, data representing a different level of abstraction for sure, but still data. The same is true for the name of a set, a vector, or a hierarchy. The name is still data no matter what it represents; therefore, if data is to have objective value, every system using the data must agree on its value (meaning), the systems must cooperate.
    Don't confuse the bit with the resource and don't confuse the resource with the bit. Be sure the value of a resource is congruent with the value of the attributes of the resource and assign value only to attributes that are recognized as data and don't confuse the assigned value with the value of the resource or any of its attributes.
    Even when systems use the same data and agree on the value of each data element, information can and does vary between systems. Each system has a different history, a different environment, a different perspective, and different capabilities, each of these is a separate coordinate for each data element. Each coordinate is determined when the data element is first stored in the system. These coordinates may change slowly as new experiences are acquired. Information is vector because when a system analyzes the data under consideration it also analyzes all of the coordinates of each data element, this results in information having a direction as well as dimensions. The direction of information points toward knowledge.
    Let me use another author's example in an attempt to make the distinction between scalar and vector clear.
    If I were to stand in a corner of a room and point a two foot long two by four so it bisected the angle of the walls and was parallel to the floor, the walls and the floor become the coordinate system to determine the location and dimensions of the two by four. Now if I moved to another corner and did the same thing, the two by four would point in a different direction because the new corner would create a new coordinate system.
    The length, width, and height of the two by four is independent of either coordinate system, the appropriate calculations would determine them to be the same in both coordinate systems; therefore, the dimensions of the two by four are scalar. The direction of the two by four is vector because it is coordinate system dependent. In order for the two by four to point in the same direction in both coordinate systems, its coordinates must under go what is called a coordinate system transformation when transported from one coordinate system to the other.

    Data is the output of the assignment activity operating on one or more bits. Data is scalar because data is coordinate system independent. Data can be transported by a system across its boundary. Information is the output of the intelligence activity operating on data.

    Information is vector because it is coordinate system dependent. Information cannot be transported by a system across its boundary because the direction of information is coordinate system dependent. The intelligence activity can create data from information.

    Knowledge is the output of the wisdom activity operating on information. The wisdom activity can create information from knowledge thus allowing the whole process to be reversed.

    Because of synergism each system has an intrinsic value, a value to itself; therefore, systems tend to be self centered and self perpetuating. Also the intrinsic value seldom agrees with the value assigned by a user.
    As users, we have assigned a value to the data processed by a computer. The computer knows the value of electric and magnetic fields and whether circuits are open or closed, but it does not know the value we have assigned to the data. We force the computer to follow our directions and it processes input data to produce output data, both have value to us, but not to the computer. The computer does not process information, it processes data.
    A radio wave does not know it is carrying laughter, music, talk, or noise. The wave does not know the value we have assigned to it. Use and value are the responsibility of the higher level or using system not the lower level or used system. This responsibility cannot be abdicated.
    Some systems can only recognize bits at one level, other systems can recognize bits at many levels. The difference between written and spoken language and decimal and binary numbers illustrate this difference. In the system of written language, a bit is one character or a blank space, in the system of spoken language, a bit is one phoneme or the absence of a phoneme. In the decimal system of numbers, a bit is a numerical character zero through nine or a blank space, in the binary system of numbers, a bit is zero or one or a blank space.
    Since a system can only recognize bits, only the scalar attributes of a resource will be recognized by a system. For example, one pea, a spoon full of peas, a serving of peas, a can of peas, a case of cans of peas, a pallet of cases of cans of peas, a system will recognize the pea, the spoon, the serving, the can, the case, and the pallet. It will treat each as a bit, it will ignore the other attributes of the resource until it can make a comparison and determine the other attributes and then it can create data to represent those attributes.
    A vector must operate on a system as a whole or else one or more parts of a system will be changed or destroyed; therefore the resultant of all vectors must be zero or at least below the stress level of the system. A system will only recognize the result of the vector's action on the system.
    For example, time, motion, and gravity, all operate on a system as a whole and a system can only recognize a scalar component, the result of a comparison, the difference between two arbitrary points. The change in time as measured by a clock, a distance between two points as measured by a ruler, or the difference between zero and the weight of an object on a scale.
    A system cannot distinguish between being at rest and moving uniformly in a straight line. For example, we don't notice the rotation of the earth or its movement in orbit even though neither is a straight line. The force of the angular acceleration is below our stress level and we cannot detect it without making a comparison.
    A vector may operate on a system, a vector may enter a system, and a vector may pass through a system, but a system cannot recognize a vector, it will treat the vector as a bit.

    A transaction is the sending of a resource across a system boundary and being received by another system. Since a bit is scalar, recognition is scalar and all transactions will be recognized as scalar by a system; therefore, a system cannot 'knowingly' transport a vector across its boundary.
    This is why information, knowledge, and all other non material resources are available only to the system that creates them. In order for one system to share non material resources with another, data must be created to represent those resources, the data transported to the other system and then the other system must recreate the non material resource from the data received.

    An incident with a coworker convinced me that the distinction between data and information was more than an intellectual conclusion. By choice, I use a red pencil to mark errors because the red contrasts very well with the black and white of the page preventing uncorrected errors. But my coworker missed my red circle around an error I found in his report and he distributed his report with a major error, much to his embarrassment. When I saw the uncorrected error, I went to him to find out why he had missed my circled mistake on his rough draft. He exclaimed, "I can't see that, I'm color blind, I can't see red! It appears black, I can't see the contrast you can!"
    Obviously, his bits was not the same as mine so his data and information could never be the same as mine, but it is also true for normal people. Our eyes can only detect three wavelengths of light yet our brains 'see' all colors. We can point to a color chart, the bits, and we can assign an agreed value, a name, to each color creating data, but the color on the chart is not the information the brain 'sees'. The brain creates information from data, it cannot 'see' the color on the chart, it only 'sees' the nerve signals, the data from the eyes corresponding to the intensity of the three wavelengths of light, the bits that the eyes can detect. The color, the information the brain 'sees', is not the bits the eyes saw. The color, the information, my brain 'sees', is not the same as the color you brain 'sees'. Oh, how much we take for granted.
    A bit to one system may not be a bit to another, data to one system may not be data to another, and information to one system is never information to another. It may be close, but never the same and data is not information and information is not data.

    Are you aware of the vector attributes of this book, any book, any sentence equivalent data, subject, verb, and object, the minimum dimensions of information. Information is vector, it has direction and dimensions, so do paragraphs, pages, articles, magazines, books, plays, movies, etc.
    Input, operand, and output is sentence equivalent data; therefore instructions are vector. Instructions must be followed in a certain order. The operator following instructions may be oblivious to the vector attributes of the instructions and many times the system as a whole is oblivious to the vector attributes of the directions. Directions have direction. Directions should point to the goal. Often we lose sight of the goal.
    Because data to one system may not be data to another, an instruction to one operator may not be an instruction to another, and directions to one system may not be directions to another. An instruction can be as simple as the shape of a nail, as direct as the instructions in a bevel, as complex as quantum mechanics, as difficult to interpret as DNA or the interaction of complex forces.
    For example, the bevel on the bolt of a door 'instructs' the bolt to slide into the door and to push against a spring as we close it. The tension in the spring 'instructs' the spring to push the bolt into the latch hole when the door is aligned with the latch plate.
    Also, one system may recognize only one level of bits and data and therefore only one level of directions, while another system may recognize more than one level of bits and data and may recognize more than one level of directions. The hierarchy of each system can be vastly different, very simple to very complex.
    Each system has its own hierarchy and if the difference in hierarchy is forgotten a major obstacle to accurate thinking will be created. Confusion. One way to eliminate some confusion is to have agreements between systems as to the meaning of data. Avoiding confusion places a very high value on agreement and agreement implies cooperation. Our society pretends to ignore the value of cooperation, we place way too much emphasis on competition and use cooperation all the time without giving it the emphasis it deserves.
    The recognition (identification) of a resource can be made by comparing its attributes to reference points, a tedious and time consuming process. To avoid repeating this process, a data tag, such as a name or a code, can be attached to the resource following recognition. Comparing the data tag is much faster than comparing attributes for all subsequent identifications. An even faster way is to store the resource at a known location within a system. Its location then becomes the resource's identity. For example, water from a faucet, gas when we turn the valve on a stove, electricity when we plug an appliance into an outlet, etc.

    A transaction is the sending of a resource across a system boundary and the receiving of the resource by another system.
    A record is the data describing a transaction or an operation.
    A document is a permanent (nonperishable) carrier used to transport and store one or more records.
    A file is an environment that can contain one or more records or documents.
    A carrier is a resource that is capable of transporting resources from one location to another.

    Many carriers are familiar, such as, trucks, ships, paper, pictures, etc. To use a given carrier, a resource may have to be converted to a different form and reconverted on receipt. Be careful with some carriers, like pictures they may be worth a thousand words, but they are also worth as many interpretations as there are observers, because they carry billions of bits. Each observer chooses only a small number of bits to use and the value to place on them. The large bulk of the bits are ignored.

    A channel is an environment used to facilitate transportation and contains the carrier. It protects resources during transportation and limits the number of resources that need to be recognized upon receipt. Recognition is faster if the channel contains one carrier and a small number of resources, a telephone line or a radio, for example.

    Broadcasting, and its synonyms, is the sending of resources in all directions. The intended receiver may or may not receive the resources and other systems may receive the resources for whom it was not intended.

    I spent a lot of time consolidating my notes, the vast majority were worthless. Most of the authors duplicated what others had already written, they just used different words to say the same thing. Why was duplicate data worthless? Then, because the systems approach provided a different way of thinking and the appropriate definitions, a major distinction between resources, one most people know instinctively, was raised to the conscious level. Data does not have a quantity attribute. Let me explain.
    All resources fall into one of two major categories, they are either material resources, such as metal, wood, cloth, cement, plastic, plants, animals, people, etc. or they are non material resources such as data, information, thoughts, ideas, solutions, experiences, feeling, love, etc. Review this list and add your own to it. Did you notice an attribute common to all non material resources? All non material resources are the product of a brain.
    These two major categories have very distinct attributes. To describe one attribute, I chose to limit the meaning of the word sharing to my connotation. The words giving and sharing are used as synonyms and yet to me sharing has the connotation of fairness, equality, and ownership, I still have the resource, while giving always gave me the feeling of unfairness, "Why do I have to give my brother part of my cookie?"
    Material resources occupy space and have a quantity attribute, a giving and taking attribute. Any system can take more of any material resource provided the system has enough space to hold more and obviously, a system can never give more of a material resource than it has. A system can give and take material resources, but if a system uses a material resource, the resource maybe degraded and the system can no longer give the original resource to another system.
    For example, if someone gave me food, I could in turn give the food to another person as long as I didn't eat it or let it spoil. Once I ate the food or let it spoil, I can't imagine anyone else would want it. When we give a material resource to another system, it is gone, it is out of our control, we don't have it any longer.
    Non material resources do not have a quantity attribute, they have a sharing attribute. A non material resource can be shared with another system and both systems have the resource. A non material resource can be shared many times, it is not degraded during sharing. Energy and other resources are expended during sharing, but the non material resource is conserved. As with a material resource, control is lost, the other system can do as it pleases with the non material resource, but the sharing system still has the resource, it only lost energy and any other resource expended during sharing.
    Another peculiar attribute of a non material resource is, once it has been shared, a second sharing is meaningless. Sharing is an all or nothing activity, you can never have more of a non material resource. Like the words on this page, if you have two copies of the same page, do you have more data or information? No, you have two copies of the material resource, the page, but no additional data or information. Non material resources do not have a quantity attribute, they have a sharing attribute. You either have it or you don't.
    Did you apply this attribute to love? If you did you came to an astonishing conclusion. You cannot love one person more than another, you can spend more time with the person, you can pay more attention to the person, you can form more and stronger bonds with one person than another, you can value one relationship more than another, etc., but you cannot love them more. Love is a non material resource, you either love the other person or you don't, love does not have a quantity attribute, it has a sharing attribute. We can share our love with as many people as we like and never run out, this is one aspect of love that children do not understand. For me, the sharing attribute more than compensates for the absence of the quantity attribute.
    You can have the same experience more than once, but you will only gain more information from the second experience if you did not completely analyze the first experience. The only benefit of the second experience was to have a second chance to finish the analysis.
    The value of any resource is determined by the user, but the value of a non material resource has a peculiar twist. A material resource gains value with scarcity, as more systems want the resource and the smaller the amount available, the more its value increases. Its value becomes infinite if one system can corner the market and hoard all of a material resource.
    If one system hoards a non material resource its value does not increase above the value the system places on it. To increase its value it must be shared, its value increases the more it is shared and only stops increasing in value when all systems have the non material resource. The more you share the more you gain because when you share other systems are encouraged to share with you and you gain their information, knowledge, love, etc., the value to both systems increases.
    The corollary is also true, if we do not share a non material resource it becomes worthless. For example, if we do not share our love or knowledge, what good is it and when we die it is lost forever if we do not share. For me, solutions are the most valuable resources we can have, especially the solutions to our survival. Not to share them is the epitome of stupidity and greed.
    The consequences of the peculiar attributes of non material resources are far reaching. Obviously I have only begun to explore the consequences, but several are readily apparent.
    First, our economic system encourages people to hoard non material resources, thoughts, ideas, solutions, etc., in an attempt to use them to gain material resources such as, food, money, gold, jewelry, property, etc., decreasing the net value to the community.
    Second, our welfare system cannot succeed or at best it can only partially succeed because we can't share material resources, we can't share a share of material resources, we can only give a share of material resources to another system, and we cannot force another independent system to spend it resources wisely, a euphemism for the way we would want them to spend their resources. Since all systems require material resources to survive, it would be ridiculous to destitute one system to help another. We may disagree on what constitutes an excess, but we can only give excess material resources away.
    Third, our dislike of taxes and welfare is apparent. Taxes are forced giving and instinctively we rebel against the inherent unfairness incorporated in giving and we rebel even stronger because we are forced to give away resources which we do not consider excess.
    We don't like to accept welfare because of the inherent unfairness of taking. Everyone likes to think they earned it or at least deserve it. Again, because of the inherent unfairness of giving, we don't like to give welfare because we falsely assume the recipient hasn't earned it or doesn't deserve it. We confuse the intuitive repulsion to the unfairness of giving and taking with pride, a very unfortunate error because it blocks our view of the truth and interferes with finding a better solution.
    Fourth, because only scalar attributes are recognized by a system and all non material resources are vector except data, data must be created to represent the other non material resources before sharing can take place and before sharing can take place agreement must be reached upon the meaning (value) of the data being shared. This means we must cooperate, cooperation is much, much more important than competition.
    For example, we cannot share an experience (an event) with another system, we can only share our interpretation of the experience after we have created data to represent that interpretation. More than one system may witness an event, but because all systems occupy space and move in the time dimension, each system will observe an event from a different perspective and the data received from an event will be filtered through the history of each system; therefore, the information created from each event will be unique for each system witnessing the event. We place the value on the experience, the experience itself has no value until we give it one.
    People have a tendency to exaggerate the value of an experience, we give it much more or much less than it deserves. "I'll teach him a lesson," is a common error. Who among us is wise enough to predict what the other person will learn from any experience we create for them. More often than not it will not be what we expect. It will probably be more than we expect because our value of the experience was to narrow, to focused, to limited. We can not teach anyone anything, we can only create an environment in which the other system has the opportunity to learn.
    Another common error is to say, "That was a horrible experience for you." In doing so we have exaggerated the experience for us and the other person, making it worse than it was. We must be careful when we share data about an event to avoid placing our value on the other person's experience. The result of this error can be observed at any funeral, people will place their value on another person's experience and in most cases making the situation worse than it should be.
    Remember, you cannot share material resources, you can only give and take them, but you can share non material resources as often as you like and you will never have less, you will never run out, you will never lose the non material resource by sharing.
    I hope you will do three things.
    First, I hope you will be able to share experiences with other people without placing your value of the experience on the other person. There is so little we can do for one another, but we can share and we can avoid placing our value on the other person's experience.
    Second, I hope when you give or share you realize the difference between giving and sharing. Resources have very unique attributes and unless these attributes are kept in mind our actions and our thinking will not be congruent with the resources used.
    Third, I hope you will add to our common knowledge by sharing your knowledge of giving and sharing.
    Remember, a bit to one system may not be a bit to another system, data to one system may not be data to another system, and information to one system is never information to another. One system may not recognize the same attributes as another system, one system may assign a different value to the data, and information and all other non material resources are vector and cannot be transported to another system, only data representing the other non material resources can be shared.
    Before turning to the next chapter a few stories and questions.
    A wealthy English couple left their estate while their home was being redecorated. On their return, the wife suddenly remembered she forgot to lock the family heirloom silverware in the safe. She was beside herself, the silverware had been in the family for centuries. It was covered by insurance, but it could never be replaced. What a way to end a very enjoyable vacation.
    After entering their home, both ran to the dinning room. The safe was open and the silverware was gone. Scotland Yard investigated the loss. No one had seen the silverware, not the neighbors or the decorators. The neighbors had seen an unknown man in the neighborhood shortly before the decorators came. Scotland Yard found a thumb print of a notorious burglar, John Robbie, in the new paint on the windowsill. The window was open and decorators had closed all the windows before they left.
    Are the following statements true?
    1. John Robbie entered the dinning room through the window.
    2. The silverware was stolen.
    3. John Robbie stole the silverware.

    More short stories.
    4. A man was killed in a car accident, his son received severe head injuries. At the hospital, the neurosurgeon refused to operate saying, "I can't, this boy is my son." Explain?
    5. What becomes wetter and wetter the more it dries?
    6. A plane flying from Lansing to New York crashed in Ontario, where do you bury the survivors, in Michigan or Ontario?
    7. You are riding in an electric train 'A' going east at forty miles an hour. Before you reach a north south crossing an old steam engine 'B' crosses going north at thirty miles an hour and after you cross a diesel engine 'C' crosses going south at ten miles an hour. A stiff wind is blowing from west to east at twenty miles an hour. How fast and in what direction is the smoke moving from engines, A, B, and C?
    8. How many baseball players on a team?
    9. How many balls to a walk?
    10. How many strikes to an out?
    11. How many outs to an inning?
    12. Define communication.

    Which came first the chicken or the egg?
    For every new species the egg contains the directions to create the new chicken, but every egg is created by a construction crew, the old species, the chicken. You may think this answer begs the question and in away it does, because the usual question is, 'Who constructed the construction crew?' No matter how far back into the past you wish to go, another construction crew constructed the later construction crew.
    The egg and the chicken is a restatement of the prime mover problem and is created by our way of thinking. A way of thinking is at the same time a way of not thinking. A way of thinking can create problems as well as solve them. The answer begs the question because of our 'western' way of thinking, linear cause and effect. We can extend the egg and chicken problem forward and backward in time without end, but how did it begin and how will it end? Our way of thinking creates an infinite series, one we cannot answer to our complete satisfaction.
    In 'Eastern' thought the problem is not linear, but circular, a large circle of eggs and chickens. There is no beginning or end, only an endless repetition of the cycle. The problem for the 'Eastern' thinker is 'How to end the cycle?', stop the world I want to get off.
    Every way of thinking has at least one blind spot. To avoid having our thinking imprisoned in a blind spot, we must be able to create new ways of thinking, we must have diversity. Diversity can create conflict, a topic to be discussed later.

    What makes a manager unique?

    If you can dact the directions to a system you are unique you are the manager of that system.

    You should be able to answer, 'If a tree falls in a forest and there was no one present to hear it, was there a sound?

    Communication is the transporting of a resource from one system, the sender, to another system, the receiver, and the sender knowing the resource was received without loss of value. Communication consists of a message transaction, a reply transaction, validation, responding, and verification.

    A message transaction is the sending of a resource, transporting the resource to the receiver, and the recognition and acceptance of the resource by the receiver.

    A reply transaction is the sending of a resource from the receiver, transporting the resource to the sender, and the recognition and acceptance of the resource by the sender.

    Generally, the reply will be a data resource indicating the value of the message. The receiver should reply. If the receiver does not reply, the sender is responsible for requesting a reply.

    Validation is the receivers responsibility, a responsibility abdicated at the receiver's peril; hence the old proverb, 'buyer beware.' The receiver must determine, does the message have value, is it useful, accurate, true, etc.

    Responding is the change in the receiver's activity in accordance with the receiver's interpretation and agreement with the message received.

    To verify the message, the sender compares the value of the reply and if the result agrees with the sender's reference points, the message is verified, that is, the message has been received without loss of value. This does not mean the receiver agrees with the message, it only means the receiver received the message without loss of value, the message was not damaged, polluted, corroded, eroded, etc., during the sending, transporting, and receiving activities. If the sender does not agree with the reply, the sender will send another message requesting additional data and or sending additional resources. Messages and replies will be sent back and forth until verification is reached. Verification is the senders responsibility.
    Caution, the receiver may deceive the sender by sending a reply indicating agreement when in fact the receiver does not agree with the message received; therefore, the only reliable conformation of agreement is to observe the receiver's response or the result of the receiver's response.
    An example,

        Bank Robber                         Teller                         Comments

    Approaches window             'Good afternoon'         Both systems ready

    Hands teller a note                 Reads note               Message sent and received
                                                 Pushes alarm            Reply sent
                                                 button                       Message verified and reply
    Runs away                                                             indicates strong disagreement

Another example,

        Customer                             Clerk                              Comments

        Approaches counter             'May I help you?'             Both systems ready
        'I would like an                                                           Message sent and
        ice cream cone.'                                                         received
                                                    'What flavor?'                 Reply sent requesting
                                                                                         more data
                                                                                         because the message
                                                                                         was incomplete
        'Strawberry'                         'Single'                             Still incomplete
        'Yes'                                     Prepares cone                Receiver is responding
                                                    and hands cone
                                                    to customer
        Observes the cone
        is a single scoop
        Tastes cone
        and it is strawberry                                                       Message verified
                                                    'One dollar please.'           Message sent and
                                                                                           received
        Hands clerk a bill                  'Thank you.'                       Reply sent, received
                                                                                            and message verified
        'Have a good day.'                 'You too.'                          End of communication

    Usually, the first message is an inquiry message to ensure the other system is ready to communicate and to check on the details of communication before sending the main message. When communicating with some systems every transmission must contain an inquiry message preceding the main message and other systems are ready all the time and an inquiry message is not necessary.
    When communicating with a complex and or a busy system, an inquiry message is a must, otherwise the message will never be received, it may not even be accepted by the channel let alone the receiver. An end of communication message is not necessary, but it insures that both systems know all messages belonging to that communication session have been received. The sender should send the last message.
    Communication is a very powerful activity and it is very very vulnerable to noise, error, erosion, corrosion, etc. Also, the value of the message and the reply must be objective, both systems must agree on the value of all resources sent and received. Some of these difficulties can be eliminated or reduced by establishing a communication system between frequently communicating systems.
    Communication will fail unless; both systems have the capacity to communicate, both must have a data processing and a communicating activity; both are ready to communicate; both agree on the value of the resources transmitted; and the resources are protected during communication.
    An obstacle in communicating with complex technical systems is their messages are very precise, complete, logical and without loose ends, everything is defined. Less precise systems have a tendency to transmit 'You know what I mean' messages. No system knows what another system means unless there is a prior agreement. The agreement must be logical, consistent, without error, and without omission.
    Remember, the difference between communication and sending, transmitting, broadcasting, dispersion, etc.; is the sender knows the message was received without loss of value. Once the fundamentals of communication have been mastered, then the art of conversation, dialogue, persuasion, consensus, compromised, etc.; can be learned and used. If communications fails the others cannot possibly succeed.
    I'm well aware the above definition does not include the mass media as forms of communication. The mass media are not communicators, they are senders. This point was demonstrated very clearly to me by a class exercise meant to stress the importance of 'two way vs. one way communication.'
    The class paired off and sat back to back. One person was given a picture of geometric figures and the other person a blank piece of paper and the geometric figures. The person with the picture told the other person where to place the geometric figures on the paper without responding. When the person with the picture was done communicating 'one way,' a score of one point was awarded for each piece in the proper place and another point if it was in the proper orientation.
    The students exchanged places and repeated the exercise using 'two way communication,' the students with the blank sheet of paper could respond, they could ask questions. It was obvious to me that 'one way communication' was a misnomer, it was merely sending, and the 'two way communication' was really communication. If the activity didn't have at least two transactions, a message and a reply, it was not communication.
    Now some comments from the literature on human communication. The sender and the receiver see and hear subjectively and selectively. The essential, important, and incidental are not determined by logic alone, but rather by a curious mix of cognitive and emotional factors. Again, a way of thinking is a way of not thinking. People tend to magnify the pleasing and diminish the unpleasant. People don't necessarily agree on what is significant. Perspective and premise underlie all communication, both must be addressed to prevent misunderstandings.
    All communications reflect attitudes, they govern our perceptions and conceptions of reality. Communication is an experience band phenomenon, it covers the whole of our experiences and is a function of the receivers expectations.
    I attended a seminar on problem solving, expecting my problem to be solved. When all I received was how to go about solving my problem, I was very disappointed. A moments thought rectified the error in my thinking. Only I could solve my problem, no one else could and my focus shifted, but my disappointment did not leave me until much later. My expectations were unrealistic and I should have known better, but that was my expectation at the time. Expectations are real, don't ignore them.
    Observation and judgment are related, but distinct processes, don't jump to conclusions, analyze. He who discriminates well communicates well. One characteristic of intelligent people is they perceive difference when others see only similarity and similarity when other see only difference.
    Be careful with 'either' and 'or', they may simplify communication and at the same time introduce over simplification (noise). Examples are an example of over simplification. Words are uncertain vehicles for the transmission of ideas. Messages should be organized according to the logic of the receiver, transmitted on the receiver's wavelength, and use the receivers language.
    Guard against the error of 'allness', that is, the communiqué contains only and all there is to be said about the topic. Remember for communication to be possible in the first place the time dimension had to be contracted, be sure to re-expand it. No one can possibly say 'all' in the short time span of communication, nor could any one receive it 'all'. The error of allness is the most frequent error people make and we make the error most often during communication.
    The 'picture' sent is not reality, what the sender sent cannot be all that was in the senders system and what the receiver received is not all the receiver perceives. Communication is the exchange of different pictures of reality, be sure to disagree agreeably or another obstacle will be created, don't put one another on the defensive. That's why I used the introduction I did. I tried to avoid putting you on the defensive before you were introduced to some of the more novel ideas of the systems approach in the hope you would examine the ramifications as they were introduced.
    Manner is usually more important than meaning. Select the proper channel and don't over load. The interaction between sender and receiver must be conducive to the free flow of data.
    Communication is organizationally determined and organizational pressures cause noise. Every field has its own vocabulary and unless the communication patterns and procedures are well planned, chaos will result. Principles govern the implementation of techniques. Techniques cause rigidity, principles are flexible. Rules are not meant to be broken, they are meant to be guides to action, only break a rule when the situation warrants their breaking.
    As a sender ask; what do I intend to say, what will I actually say, what will it mean, what is the emotional impact, what will the receiver expect, what will the receiver actually receive, and how will the receiver feel about what was received?
    The sender is more the servant that the master, the sender may dictate what is sent, but the receiver will dictate what will be received and what the response will be.

    Before you turn to the next chapter, the answers to the previous questions.

    'If a tree falls in a forest and no one is present to hear it, was there a sound?' Yes there was a sound, but no data or information. Bits were created by a change in a system, the tree falling created sound (bits) signifying a change in the system had occurred. The sound was potential data, but without an intelligent system to assign a value to the sound before the sound dissipated, any data and therefore any information, was lost along with the sound.

    Is communication a two way street? Yes, if the activity does not contain at least two transactions, a message and a reply, it is not communication.

    1,2, and 3, did you jump to conclusions?
    4, did you vary attributes?
    5, 6, and 7, did you focus on one attribute and ignore another or did you focus on both without considering each one independently?
    1, 2, and 3. A few days after their return, a neighbor also returned from vacation and brought the silverware to them. She forgot they had left and came to tell them she was leaving. She found the house empty, the servants had left before the decorators arrived. She found the silverware and didn't know what to do, she couldn't make the safe door lock. She took the silverware with her and put it in her safe.
    Scotland Yard found John Robbie murdered by another robber. He had cut John Robbie's thumb off and used it to make thumb prints all around the house to confuse Scotland Yard.
    4. Did you vary the gender of the surgeon, if you did the solution is easy, the surgeon was his mother. This question exemplifies our difficulty with stereotypes and returns us to 'a way of thinking is at the same time a way of not thinking.' Habits, pigeon holes, labels, stereotypes, and ways of thinking reduce our work load, but at the same time they block our view.
    5. If you focused on drying instead of wetter, you might have come to the conclusion, a towel.
    6. Again did you focus on one attribute at a time? If you did you would realize that survivors are not buried.
    This type of error is a constant source of difficulty, the brain 'knows' what should be present and over rides the data sent to it from the senses. Be sure to recheck all input data to make sure this mistake is not made.
    7. This time did you couple attributes to the engines and waste to the carrier? If you did, you would know an electric train does not produce smoke and the wind carries the smoke at the speed of the wind and in the direction of the wind, regardless of the speed and direction of the source.
    8. Nine on a team during play.
    9. Four.
    10. Three.
    11. Six. Did you forget the other team?

    Next, define data processing. Name a few forms and reports you use. Examine them. What do you like about them? What don't you like about them. A hint, consider income tax forms, credit card invoices, bank statements, credit card statements, or utility bills.

    This chapter contains my thoughts on data processing and is slanted toward computer data processing, but much of the material applies to every data processing activity.
    Data processing is an additional activity that all but the simplest systems have. In some systems it is the process of the system, such as, accounting, mass media, telephone, newspaper, computer data processing, etc.

    Data processing is collecting, auditing, editing, storing, processing, and reporting.

    Collecting is receiving input data or obtaining it. Use forms to aid the quick and accurate creation of data from information.

    Auditing is comparing the data for validity, accuracy, legibility, length, values, valid names and codes, check digits, etc. The audit activity should identify the error, which data element and document, and report the errors, the data, and documents in the same order as received.

    Editing is auditing plus the capability of correcting errors by evaluating and using judgment.

    Reporting is outputting data in a format that aids the quick and accurate creation of information. Always report as soon as possible. Also, report statistics such as, the number of documents, records, data elements, lines of print, number of errors and type of error by operator and batch, also report the amount of time required to process each batch through each step and operator. With this data, repetitive errors can be detected and corrected and any change in the validity of the data will be more visible. The first use of this data should be to determine the cost benefit ratio to determine which statistics are worth gathering and reporting.

    The input data should be audited and edited to prevent system efficiency degradation by processing waste. Intelligent systems edit, other systems audit. Intelligent systems can use judgment. For example, computer data processing (CDP) systems can be programmed to find some errors, but not all errors and some errors intelligent systems can find much more efficiently. Spelling is a case in point. A CDP system does not check spelling, it searches a library and if the word is found, the system assumes the spelling is correct, but it could be the wrong word, such as meat for meet, write for rite, Smith for Smythe, etc.
    Some errors a CDP system cannot detect at all, such as the wrong words as illustrated above or the transposition of account numbers, 1093 for 9013, if both numbers are valid account numbers, the transaction will be posted to the wrong account. An intelligent system may not detect these errors either, but CDP system never will. Check digits were appended to account numbers in a effort to eliminate this type of error. Some check digit schemes are so sophisticated they are error correcting, but they require more space and time.
    If like documents are grouped together, a batch, the amount of coding and data conversions can be reduced. The like data can be entered once for all the transactions in the batch, reducing the amount of data input and the corresponding risk of error. Common groups of data are dates, location codes, and resource codes. Like wise, if fixed input data, such as today's date, this location, this activity, this resource, etc., are entered and stored in a CDP System and retrieved as needed with respect to the fixed data a large amount of input data can be eliminated, again saving resources and reducing the possibility of error.
    Assign a code to each batch and store the code so it can be compared to prevent the same batch from being entered twice. Total like numbers in each record and store in a batch header record and compare to a total computed by the audit activity. This procedure can reduce input errors. For people, keep the batch size to fifty. Be sure to audit for errors of entering, transcribing, converting, and balancing.
    Addressing instructions are needed to store and retrieve resources. Obviously, the storage environment has to be created and maintained before it can be used. The environment is designed to protect the resources. Store a surplus of critical resources. Critical data should be copied and stored at more than one location within the environment. Create a recovery plan, the instructions to restore resources from storage should an error or accident occur.
    For example, a CDP system could use the grandfather, father, and son approach. Data is output to file A. File A is used as input to the next step and data output to file B. B becomes the input to the next step and output is stored on file C. C becomes the input and the output is stored on A, and the cycle repeated. If an error occurs, two correct files are always available, by reprocessing the appropriate steps. I use this procedure when I write, if I make an error or I'm not satisfied with a revision, I use the previous copy to restore the data.
    Data consists of three main types, logical, numeric, and character. The data type determines the allowed operations and the speed of each operation places an economic limit on the operation.
    The logic operands are 'and', 'or', and 'not', which can be combined to create, operations such as compare, search, sort, etc. The numeric operands are 'add', 'subtract', 'multiply, 'divide', etc., the familiar operands of arithmetic. Character operands, sometimes referred to as string operands, are 'move', 'truncate', 'pad', 'concatenate', which can be combined to create such operations as read, write, display, edit, etc.
    Data processing in array (table) format is fast provided the instructions are simple and repetitive. Exceptions require more instructions; therefore exceptions slow data processing. Data processing in sentence format is slow, it must follow the rules of grammar and the rules are usually not simple. Sentence format is commonly used by people when talking, reading, writing, etc. CDP in sentence format follows the rules for character data.
    To be useful, data processing operations must shrink the time dimension, in other words, data processing must be fast to have value. Logic operands and instructions are short and compact, requires few bits and very little space and time. Numeric operands and instructions are longer and are not as compact, require more bits, space, and time. Many character operands and instructions are long and slow and require many bits. Data entry requirements follow the same pattern.
    Systems process bits, the larger the number, the larger the space and time needed for processing. Since the data processing requirements for numeric data is more compact than character data, numeric data processing is much faster. Is it any wonder then that the first computers were number crunchers. Word processing had to wait for lower cost and higher capacity computers. Also, numeric data entry is faster, only one hand is needed to enter numbers, the other hand can be used to move documents.
    Array format is rows and columns of data, the identity of each element is determined by its relative position with respect to a name or code at one end of each row and column. A telephone book is a familiar example, names in one column and numbers in the other.
    Sentence format is character data. Identity is made by data type and location, sometimes a slow and complex operation. A name and address on a letter is a familiar example, also the sentences on this page, subject, verb, and object.
    Most reports are either action, status, or reference. An action report requires a reply, such as invoices, checks, exception reports, etc. Exception reports imply a reference point, exception to what? Statements, statistical reports, aging reports, reconciliations, etc. are status reports. Books, stock holder reports, historical financial and sales reports are reference reports.
    The principle users of the data should have considerable freedom in determining the report content and distribution. However; the users should only ask for data they will use. The data supplied will depend upon the user's goals and quantified by what data is available and feasible to obtain.
    The usual difficulties with forms and reports are to much data, unnamed data, missing data, obsolete data, and nice to know but not needed data. Ask about the data, is it useful, relevant, would it be missed if not available? What would a change in data reveal? Would a change indicate dact was needed and if so, what dact was needed? Does it measure achievement? Does it reflect performance vs reference points? Is additional data needed? Would a different data type yield a better profile?
    Design forms and reports to fit the systems and procedures not the other way around. Design reports first and forms last, remember, output first, input last. Reports should be designed to aid the quick and accurate creation of information from data. Forms should be designed to aid the quick and accurate creation of data from information. Both should meet all the requirements of a communication message.
    Establish a forms and report file containing data, history, and a copy of each form and report by subject (name), function, number, and date of last revision. Choose one to be the file and cross reference the others. The name should be descriptive, for example, don't use, report 1.
    When designing a form or a report consider the following: necessity, purpose, duplication, circulation, economy, the frequency of use, where used, central or decentral, the work environment, addressing requirements to store and retrieve, sources of data, other sources that may use or supply data, the nature of the data and its sources, uses, and sensitivity, public relations and advertising, and the distribution and communication methods and the speed required. Facilitate distribution by using titles, numbers, copies, and color. Use as little data as possible, as few lines, pages, and copies as possible. Pay close attention to the data needed, the field size for each data element, the body, the format, the equipment used, and the sorting sequence. Consider the scope of coverage, the degree of detail needed; storage, where, how long, and method of disposal. Economize by using standard sizes, small size, few copies, and a short storage time.
    Reduce costs by reducing regulation, paperwork, forms, and reports in this order. Save money with forms and reports not on them. Paper is cheap, regulation and paperwork are expensive. Good forms and reports can eliminate unnecessary paperwork and aid in the regulation of activities. The effective use of data is the final measure of a form or a report.
    For reports: Use array format when possible, remember to identify each row and column. Page headings should contain dates, page number, report number and name.

                    For forms consider:
                                    the heading, the body, and the closing
                                    the company name and logo
                                    the instructions on the form
                                    dates, signatures, seals, affidavits
                                    methods available to record
                                    the data volume used in a time period and the frequency of
                                         the period
                                    copies, use and distribution
                                    use of lettering
                                    zoning, put like data and from one source in a contiguous
                                         area
                                    specifications, size, color, paper, quality, quantity, etc.
                                    purchasing or producing internally
                                    inspection

    Identify data fields on a form by name, such as invoice number, today's date, billing date, address, etc. Design for easy use internally and externally, by data entry, by the audit and the edit activity, and by all machines that process the form. The steps in preparation should be easy to follow, have continuous flow, minimum entries, don't jump around the form to enter data on it, and use machines effectively and efficiently.
    Instructions should be readily available given the form number or name, at the level of the operator who enters the data, and easy to confirm the appropriate instruction has been located. The instructions must define the purpose of the form, who enters various entries, the data field terms, and the distribution of copies. Have complete instructions for all types of transactions entered on the same form. Never let an operator guess, always instruct exactly. Forms should be readily available where needed and should be a part of a planned management communication set.
    Until this chapter I have kept detail to a minimum, but people have a tendency to ignore forms and reports because the work is boring and unglamorous. Unfortunate, the report should be done very well because the report is the end product of data processing, it is the only thing the user will see as the result of all the work you have done and the user will judge all of your work by the report.
    Forms gather the data that form the basis of the report. If the input is garbage so will the report. Why defeat the entire purpose of data processing with poor reports and forms.
    I only gave about half of the detail needed to design forms and reports well, but I think it was enough to indicate how much effort should be expended on them, the rest of the detail should be supplied by the vendor of the material and equipment used.
    I would like to share with you a time saving procedure and how it came about. Maybe you will have more success in implementing it than I had. For more than five years I tried to convince users to lay out their own reports. Almost all refused on the grounds it would take them to much time. One user did and the time savings was real.
    When I began programming, our computer was very small and slow, every step was a separate program. To produce a report involved extracting the desired data from files, sorting the data, accumulating the data for each data element of the report, sorting the accumulated data into report order, and printing the report.
    One user refused to participate in designing his report, he told me to do it, he was too busy. He told me vaguely what he wanted and I produced a report and showed it to him. He wanted a couple of changes. I made the changes and showed it to him again. This procedure was repeated for six months before the report was acceptable.
    I never could convince him how much time we were both wasting. Every time he made a change, I had to change every program and the sorting parameters, increasing the possibility of error. I made enough mistakes in writing the programs, I didn't want his corrections to add to the number of errors I made. Since his salary was much greater than mine, he would not believe by saving my time he could also save his.
    At that time all the other programmers were doing the same thing, so I didn't get any inspiration from them. One day while I was rummaging through our unused furniture warehouse, I came across an old wide carriage pica typewriter, I later learned it was used to create financial statements before the computer was installed. The carriage was wide enough to hold fourteen inch computer paper and I knew what I was going to do with it. When ever a user would not cooperate in report design, I typed what I thought the user wanted using green bar computer paper and the users thought it came from the computer, only a few ever discovered what I was doing.
    I could make changes in an hour. The users never could understand why I was so fast to finalize their reports and so slow in comparison, to put their reports into production. They didn't know I didn't write a single program until they agreed to the final report layout. I used this procedure at every opportunity.
    The user came up behind me while I was typing his report. He didn't interrupt me until the last number, by then he realized what I was doing. He pulled the report from the typewriter, examined it, and burst out laughing.
    He, like many people, had deified the computer, its output was written in stone. The value he had assigned to the computer was so incongruent, it not only blocked his view, it prevented him from thinking about this area of his work.
    He knew every number on the report was fictitious, but every number was reasonable, he could not tell it was not produced by the computer. He realized what he already knew and understood, every receiver must validate the message, the report, received. He had to have reference points, accounting people call them 'controls', to compare the message, the report, for validity. He knew computer output was no more accurate than the instructions people created for the computer to follow and the data people gave the computer to process. His way of not thinking was exposed and he burst out laughing.
    He gave me full cooperation on all succeeding projects, unfortunately he left the company before I could enlist his aide in convincing more than one other user. That one user soon learned what I was trying to tell him. I could not put all the data he wanted on one sheet of paper without cluttering the report and reducing the easy of creating information. As he continued to type his report designs he quickly learn which changes were easy to do and which ones were difficult. He also learned that the changes he wanted were completed faster and with fewer errors.
    Many years later, while I was reflecting on the above story, I also learned, as with aiding memory retention, using as many senses as possible helps people understand easier and faster. Tell, show, and do. Tell them what you want, give them a copy of what you said so they can read it. Show them what you want, give them an example of what you want so they can see it. Demonstrate what you want and have them demonstrate it. With caution use touch, smell, and taste, as well. Does this sound familiar, it should, every teacher uses it.
    Allow me to share another personal anecdote. One of the advantages of using a computer is the low cost of collecting data (statistics) concerning any task done by the computer. Every member of our staff and every system, program, and task had an individual identification code. At the end of each day, week, and month, data was summarized and reported. Insignificant data was eliminated from the collecting process.
    Data concerning programmers and data entry operators supports the conclusions of the 'Mythical Man Month', (see bibliography). A monthly program report identified every program recompiled during the month and the number of lines of code for each program. Every recompile indicated a mistake was made by someone, a user, a systems analyst, or usually a programmer. For data entry operators, a weekly and monthly report contained the key strokes, the time, and number of documents for each data entry task. By combining the corrections made during verify mode for each task an error rate and the number of key strokes per hour could be calculated for each data entry task and operator.
    Over a long period of time each person had a characteristic error and productivity rate. After reading the 'Mythical Man Month', I compared the error and productivity rate of over time work performed by each person to their regular time work. The error rate increased and the productivity fell for every person and continued to do so for each day of over time. When I could, I would stop the person involved from working over time until their error rate and productivity returned to normal.
    Many times other managers questioned why my people were not working over time when theirs were. I had the numbers to support my position, but do you think I could convince any of the other managers? No! I don't understand it, most people think computer reports are written in stone, but no one else would accept my response to the error rate and productivity report and follow my example and stop their people from working overtime.

    Before turning to the next chapter answer the following question.
    Your broker advised you to buy a stock and during the following year the price rose until you had a fifty per cent profit. Your broker called, "The stock hit a new all time high."
    "Do you think it will continue to rise?"
    "Yes, I think it has three chances of going higher during the next year and one chance of returning to you purchase price. If you wait and the price falls, you will not make any money. If you sell now, you will make fifty per cent. If you wait and the price does rise you will double your money what do you want me to do?"

    Did you recognize this question as the opposite of an earlier question. Neither question has a correct answer. Most people will take the sure gain and wait hoping to avoid a loss. The answers to these questions points toward a natural bias in the way we think, we have many more built in biases, but better studied under psychology than systems; however in succeeding 'thoughts' I will share my thoughts on our negative positive bias and the error of allness.